Deductive Reasoning: Everyday Examples

Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning which goes from general to specific. 

Deductive reasoning is based on premises and if the premises are true, then the reasoning will be valid.

Deductive Reasoning: Everyday Examples

• In mathematics, If A = B and B = C, then A = C.
• Since all humans are mortal, and I am a human, then I am mortal. 
• All dolphins are mammals, all mammals have kidneys; therefore all dolphins have kidneys. 
• Since all squares are rectangles, and all rectangles have four sides, so all squares have four sides. 
• If Dennis misses work and at work there is a party, then Dennis will miss the party.
• All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. The number 35 ends with a 5, so it is divisible by 5.
• To earn a master’s degree, a student must have 32 credits. Tim has 40 credits, so Tim will earn a master’s degree.
• All birds have feathers and robins are birds, so robins have feathers.
• It is dangerous to drive on icy streets. The streets are icy now so it is dangerous to drive now.
• All cats have a keen sense of smell. Fluffy is a cat, so Fluffy has a keen sense of smell.
• Snakes are reptiles and reptiles are cold-blooded; therefore, snakes are cold-blooded.
• Cacti are plants and all plants perform photosynthesis; therefore, cacti perform photosynthesis.
• Red meat has iron in it and beef is red meat, so beef has iron in it.
• Acute angles are less than 90 degrees and this angle is 40 degrees so this angle is acute.
• All noble gases are stable and helium is a noble gas, so helium is stable.
• Magnolias are dicots and dicots have two embryonic leaves; therefore magnolias have two embryonic leaves.
• Elephants have cells in their bodies and all cells have DNA, so elephants have DNA.
• All cars have at least two doors and a Ford Focus is a car, so the Ford Focus has at least two doors.
• All horses have manes and the Arabian is a horse; therefore Arabians have manes.

Other Patterns of Deductive Reasoning 

Some deductive reasoning does not follow the classic reasoning pattern of A = B and B = C, then A = C. Some examples of other patterns are:

• Be careful around bees, they might sting you. (The reasoning is understood that all bees might sting.)
• It takes me an hour to get to the mall. If I leave at five o’clock I will reach the mall by six o’clock.
• That dog is growling so be careful or you might get bitten. (It is logical is the dog is angry, he might bite.)
• The apple hit me on the head because of gravity. 
• There are three people in my family. Each one is tall, so everyone in my family is tall.

You can use deductive reasoning to better understand the world around you. 

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Fallacy Project: Real World Examplses

Dimensions of Understanding

1. Literal -->
2. Associative <->
3. Metaphoric <- # ->

Analogy

Analogy

from http://www.philosophypages.com/lg/e13.htm

Today we begin the final component of our study of logic, a survey of the most common methods of inductive reasoning. Although inductive inferences never guarantee the truth of their conclusions, as valid deductive inferences do, we can evaluate them by considering how each could be made stronger or weaker by the addition of further information.

Analogical Reasoning

The simplest variety of inductive reasoning is argument by analogy, which takes note of the fact that two or more things are similar in some respects and concludes that they are probably also similar in some further respect. Not every analogy is an argument; we frequently use such comparisons simply to explain or illustrate what we mean. But arguments by analogy are common, too.

Suppose, for example, that I am thinking about buying a new car. I'm very likely to speak with other people who have recently bought new cars, noting their experiences with various makes, models, and dealers. If I discover that three of my friends have recently bought Geo Prizms from Burg and that all three have been delighted with their purchases, then I will conclude by analogy that if I buy a Geo Prizm from Burg, I will be delighted, too.

Evaluating Analogies

Of course, this argument is not deductively valid; it is always possible that my new car may turn out to be an exception. But there are several considerations that clearly matter in determining the relative strength or weakness of my inductive inference:

1. Number of instances. If five friends instead of three report their satisfaction with the model I intend to buy, that tends to make it even more likely that I will be satisfied, too. In general, more instances strengthen an analogy; fewer weaken it.
2. Instance variety. If my three friends bought their Prizms from three different dealers but were all delighted, then my conclusion is somewhat more likely to be true, no matter where I decide to buy mine. In general, the more variety there is among the instances, the stronger the analogical argument becomes.
3. Number of similarities. If my new purchase is not only the same make and model from the same dealer but also has the same engine, then my conclusion is more likely to be true. In general, the more similarities there are between the instances and my conclusion, the better for the analogical argument.
4. Relevance. Of course, the criteria we're considering apply only if the matters with which they are concerned are relevant to the argument. Ordinarily, for example, we would assume that the day of the week on which a car was purchased is irrelevant to a buyer's satisfaction with it. But relevance is not something about which we can be terribly precise; it is always possible in principle to tell a story in the context of which anything may turn out to be relevant. So we just have to use our best judgment in deciding whether or not some respect deserves to be considered.
5. Number of dissimilarities. If my friends all bought Geos with automatic transmissions and I plan to buy a Geo with a standard transmission, then the conclusion that I will be delighted with my purchase is a little less likely to be true. In general, the fewer dissimilarities between instances and conclusion, the better an analogical argument is.
6. Modesty of conclusion. If all three of my friends were delighted with their auto purchases but I conclude only that I will be satisfied with mine, then this relatively modest conclusion is more likely to be true. In general, arguments by analogy are improved when their conclusions are modest with respect to their premises.

Inductive Reasoning Examples

Some examples of inductive reasoning include:

• Jennifer leaves for school at 7:00 a.m. Jennifer is always on time. Jennifer assumes, then, that she will always be on time if she leaves at 7:00 a.m.
• The cost of goods was $1.00. The cost of labor to manufacture the time was $.50. The sales price of the item was $5.00; so, the item always provides a good profit.
• Every windstorm in this area comes from the north. I can see a big cloud of dust caused by a windstorm in the distance; so, a new windstorm is coming from the north.
• Bob is showing a big diamond ring to his friend Larry. Bob has told Larry that he is going to marry Joan. Bob has bought the diamond ring to give to Joan.
• The chair in the living room is red. The chair in the dining room is red. The chair in the bedrrom is red. All chairs in the house are red.
• Every time you eat peanuts, your throat sweels up and you can't breath. So, you are allergic to peanuts.
• All cats that you have observed purr. Therefore, every cat must purr.
• Two-thirds of the students at this college receive student aid. Therefore, two-thirds of all college students receive student aid.
• All of the girls in the class were blond, therefore all girls in this neighborhood are blond.
• Michael just moved here from Chicago. Michael has red hair, therefore people from Chicago have red hair.
• The children in that house yell loudly when they play in their bedroom. I can hear children yelling in that house, therefore the children must nbe playing in their bedroom.
• All chickens that we have seen have been brown; so, all chickens are brown.
• All cars in this town drive on the right side of the street. Therefore, all cars in all towns drive on the right side of the street.
• John is an excellent swimmer. John's family has a swimming pool. John's sister Mary must also be an excellent swimmer.
• All basketball players in your school are tall, so all basketball players must be tall.
• All brown dogs in the park are small dogs. Therefore, all small dogs are brown.
• All children in the day care center like to play with Legos. All children, therefore, enjoy playing with Legos.
• Ray is a football player. All football players weigh more than 170 pounds. Ray weighs more than 170 pounds.
• All observed houses on the South Street are falling apart. Sherry lives on South Street. Her house is falling apart.

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