TFY IM C6 Opinions

CHAPTER 6: OPINIONS
TEACHING OVERVIEW
This chapter challenges the popular belief that any opinion is just as good as any other and
that all deserve respectful attention. It treats opinion variety and opinion psychology; its
exercises can be read aloud. By the end of the chapter, students should come to view
opinions—their own and others—with more detachment and base them on clearer
standards. Whether opinions are a subcategory of beliefs or the opposite is a question the
class might consider. One could say beliefs contain stronger feelings as well as
commitments.
The chapter section on polls and opinion will no doubt become amplified in class
discussion; many may challenge my viewpoint on this subject. For each section, let their
interest and your time limits be your guide in assigning class time for discussion.
The section “Opinions as Claims in Arguments” is worth class time and attention;
it is a significant stage of the progression that teaches argument awareness throughout the
text. After reading this paragraph, studying the diagram of the table, and completing the
discussion questions on the pro and con arguments, students should understand the
nature of a basic argument in terms of claims and support and be ready to write an
argument along the lines of this definition.
Students have three options to choose from under the composition writing
application. If you want to assign the first option, “A short argument supporting an
opinion,” then students may benefit from some practice in class. I would recommend
working with them at the blackboard for 15 minutes to an hour. I ask the class to give me a
claim, any claim, and then together we outline beneath that statement whatever support
could be offered, either in the form of evidence or further claims. Sometimes I write a pro
claim on one side of the board and a con claim on the same topic on the other side, draw a
line down the middle, then have students stand together on one side or the other and
write down their supportive reasons. This can result in some laughter and lively
encounter. (I remember their debate over the superiority of the Harley-Davidson versus
the Honda motorcycle.) The second option, “A short expository essay about an opinion,”
is designed to give students an opportunity to write an objective analysis of one of their
own opinions. The third option for analyzing three opinions is worth class review time
and will elicit a lot of interest and involvement. A variant of this assignment is to assign a
paper analyzing claims and support in a newspaper letter to an editor. I sometimes
photocopy several letters to the editor and distribute them for this exercise in class. You
will probably be surprised, as I was, to find both how challenging this assignment can be
for students and how rewarding.

Main Idea and Supporting Details

Main Idea and Supporting Details

In this lesson, you'll discover that an author communicates one big idea and gives details about it.

THE MAIN IDEA is what a selection's mostly about—the most important thing the author wants readers to know. Other facts in the selection are details that support, or tell more about, the main idea. Sometimes the main idea is stated directly.

Example 1

Grass is one of Earth's most useful plants. Most people think of it as the stuff that grows in the yard and needs to be mowed, but there are thousands of different kinds. Wheat, rice, and other grains are grasses that help people and animals exist!

The main idea is stated: Grass is a useful plant. But sometimes you have to find the main idea yourself. To do that, use information from the text to figure it out.

Example 2

In 1483, Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci sketched a flying machine. He was also a scientist and fascinated by movement. His sketch showed a screw-like wing made of stiff linen. He never got it off the ground, but a real helicopter like it flew almost 500 years later!

The main idea is that Leonardo da Vinci designed the first helicopter more than 500 years ago. That's what the author most wants you to remember.

In the first example, supporting details are that wheat, rice, and other grains are useful grasses, and people and animals need grasses. In the second example, details are the year he drew the design, that it was a flying machine, what it looked like, and when the first real helicopter flew. Each detail supports or expands on the main idea.

In longer selections, each chapter or section may have its own main idea, but there's just one central idea for the whole selection. Sometimes the title can help you figure out the main idea. And you may find that some details add interest but aren't necessary to finding the main idea, like the fact that da Vinci was fascinated by movement, so they are not "supporting" details.

Main Idea and Supporting Details Practice Exercises

Practice 1: A Musical Mouse

Read the selection, and then answer the questions that follow.

(1)     There are many different kinds of mice. Some are good swimmers; others like to swing from trees by their tails. And one kind, the white-footed mouse, is not only a good swimmer and tree climber, but it's also quite musical!

(2)     This minute, furry creature's body is about 8 inches (20 cm) long, with a tail of another 3 inches (7.5 cm). It weighs only about 0.8 ounces (23 g). It's been around North America for a long time; scientists have found 40- million-year-old fossils of the tiny creature's ancestors!

(3)     Some people call the white-footed mouse the "wood mouse" because it lives in so many wooded areas throughout North America. Other people call the white-footed mouse the "deer mouse." One reason is that its fur is the same colors as a deer's—soft brown on its back; white on its underside. Another reason is that the mice carry deer ticks that spread Lyme disease.

(4)     The whitefoot makes its nest almost anywhere. It likes a home that is warm and dry, like a hollow tree or empty bird's nest. But most of the time the whitefoot runs along the ground looking for food. It eats seeds, nuts, leaves, bark, and insects. It sleeps by day and looks for food at night—its long whiskers and big ears help it find its way in the dark.

(5)     Does the whitefoot really make music? In a way, it does because it often makes a humming sound. And it taps its little paws very fast on a dead leaf or hollow log to make a buzzing, drumming sound! Scientists aren't sure why the mouse is a drummer; it just is!

(6)     So the next time you're in the woods, walk quietly. There might be a white-footed mouse nearby, and you wouldn't want to interrupt a mouse in the middle of its song . . . would you?

1.       What is the main idea of this selection?

          a.       Deer are brown and white.

          b.       The white-footed mouse taps its paws in a drumming sound.

          c.       The woods of North America are full of mice.

          d.       Scientists study the habits of mice.

2.       Which is a supporting detail for that main idea?

          a.       The white-footed mouse is also known as the wood mouse.

          b.       The deer mouse may carry ticks that transmit a disease.

          c.       The mouse taps on a dead leaf or hollow log.

          d.       The white-footed mouse isn't very big.

3.       Which would make the best substitute title for this selection?

          a.       "How to Build a Better Mousetrap"

          b.       "Concert in the Woods"

          c.       "Caution: Lyme Disease Ahead!"

          d.       "All about Rodents"

4.       What is the main idea of paragraph 2?

          a.       The white-footed mouse lives in Canada.

          b.       The white-footed mouse is also called the wood or deer mouse.

          c.       The white-footed mouse hums.

          d.       The white-footed mouse is very small.

5.       Which detail in paragraph 2 is interesting, but not needed to find the main idea of that paragraph?

          a.       Its tail is 3 inches (7.5 cm) long.

          b.       Scientists found 40-million-year-old fossils of its ancestors.

          c.       It weighs 0.8 ounces (23 g).

          d.       Its body is about 8 inches (20 cm) long.

Practice 2: Dietary Details

Read the selection, andthen answer the questions that follow.

(1)     Everyone needs food as fuel for his or her body. But kids especially need the right fuel to keep their bodies going as they're growing. To help everyone figure out which foods supply the energy needed, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) developed a new Food Guide Pyramid in 2005. Look at the visual.

(2)     You probably remember the old pyramid, with horizontal layers of blocks like the ancient pyramids. Well, this new pyramid has six, tall, vertical stripes instead. Each stripe represents one source of nutrition. There are horizontal steps on the side of the pyramid, but they signify the need for exercise as well as good food—30 minutes of exercise a day—to create a healthy you!

(3)     This new pyramid is called MyPyramid, because it's supposed to help meet the needs of each individual. Your food needs are based on your age, if you're a girl or boy, and how active you are. You can go to the USDA website at http://mypyramid.gov to check out how much and which kinds of food you need.

(4)     Each stripe on MyPyramid is a different color:

Orange: grains The average kid needs 6 ounces a day from this group, which includes breads, cereals, rice, and pasta.

Green: vegetables The average kid needs about   cups a day from this group, which includes dark green veggies, like spinach and broccoli, and bright orange ones, like carrots.

Red: fruits The average kid needs about   2 cups of fresh, frozen, canned, or dried fruit a day.

Yellow: oils Kids need about 5 teaspoons of oil a day. Some have no cholesterol or are lower in fat than others. Check food labels for information.

Blue: milk The average kid needs about 3 cups a day of milk, yogurt, or cheese.

Purple: meat, fish, beans, and nuts The average kid needs about 5 ounces a day from this group.

(5)     These provide a "healthy diet." That's one that has enough of each essential nutrient; a variety from all food groups; energy to maintain a healthy weight; and no excess fat, sugar, or salt. Eating healthy and exercising daily can help reduce the risk of getting diabetes, cancer, or bone problems as you get older.

6.       Which is the most likely main idea of this selection?

          a.       People need to exercise at least once a week.

          b.       Beans are a good source of vitamins.

          c.       People need to eat a variety of good foods and exercise for a healthy life.

          d.       Fiber is an important part of a healthy lifestyle.

7.       Which is NOT a supporting detail for the main idea?

          a.       Always use sunscreen as protection from the sun's harmful rays.

          b.       Pick a variety of things from the vegetable group.

          c.       Get at least a half-hour of exercise every day.

          d.       Don't just pick foods from one food group.

8.       Why was it suggested that someone go to the USDA website?

          a.       to check the local weather

          b.       to write a letter to Congress

          c.       to exchange recipes for wholesome, healthy foods that taste good

          d.       to find out exactly which foods and how much that individual should eat

9.       Which would best be another title for the article?

          a.       The Nutrition Needs of Prehistoric Humans

          b.       Food for Thought

          c.       The Eating Habits of Senior Citizens

          d.       Thoughts about Work Routines

10.     Which is the main idea of the last paragraph?

          a.       It's nice to choose a variety of foods.

          b.       Many older people have heart problems.

          c.       Eating right and exercising now can reduce health risks in the future.

          d.       Getting enough sleep is important to good health.

Practice 3: Radio Days

Read the selection, and then answer the questions that follow.

(1)     Before there was TV, Americans gathered around their radios daily to listen to the news and more. In the 1930s and 1940s, mystery shows, like Sam Spade and The Shadow, were favorites with young and old alike. Every week people tuned in to hear the top tunes on Your Hit Parade. And on Sunday mornings, radio stars read the comics aloud to kids.

(2)     Did you think soap operas were a TV phenomenon? No way! They started on radio. Do you know why they were called "soap operas"? Most shows were sponsored by soap companies and, because characters had many problems, people said the stories were like operas, most of which don't have happy endings!

(3)     Because there were no pictures to show what was going on, radio required people to use their imaginations. So, as a sportscaster described the action, people had to imagine "he hits a pop fly high into the infield, the shortstop moves in . . . reaches . . . grabs it . . . throws to second . . . and he's out!" Not only did they picture it, many people cheered as if they were right there in the stadium!

11.     Which best states the main idea of the article?

          a.       Soap operas started on TV.

          b.       Before there was TV, people listened to the radio a lot.

          c.       Quite often, operas don't end happily.

          d.       Top tunes were played on the radio.

12.     The author says radio required people to use their imaginations because

          a.       radio stars read the comics.

          b.       people cheered as if they were at the stadium.

          c.       The Shadow was a mystery show.

          d.       there were no pictures to show the action.

13.     Which could the author best use as another supporting detail?

          a.       Television was not in many American homes until the 1950s.

          b.       Many cars did not have a radio.

          c.       The modern home has two or more TVs.

          d.       Two-way radios were important during the war.

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

Answers

1.	b
2.	c
3.	b
4.	d
5.	b
6.	c
7.	a
8.	d
9.	b
10.	c
11.	b
12.	d
13.	a

from http://www.education.com/study-help/article/main-idea-supporting-details/

stAr: Act:

stAr: Act:

Learn by doing -- To make the new vocabulary your own by starting to do something with it. Activating your connections with your target words:

Write about it.

Talk about it.

Map it.

Elaborate upon it.

Personalize it.

Act by using your full cognitive and affective abilities to attain your desired level of proficiency.

Make paths, connections with your previous knowledge.

Use the the newly learned vocabulary in your speaking, writing, creative representations, maps, . . .

Add your activities with the new content to your own and/or your team's blogs/wikis.

TFY Chapter Glossaries

Adapted from Mayfield, Thinking for Yourself text:

Critical and Creative Thinking
Creative thinking	Creative thinking leads to the invention of something new. It makes use of imagination, challenges assumptions, and engages in problem solving.
Critical thinking	Critical thinking brings conscious awareness, skills, and standards to the process of observing, analyzing, reasoning, evaluating, reading, and communicating.
Critical thinking standards	Criteria used to attain, describe, and judge excellence in critical thinking.

1 Observation
Accommodation	Accommodation is achieved when we can do the thinking needed to create a new schema or modify an old schema in order to explain a new experience.
Assimilation	Assimilation is achieved when we can integrate new experiences into existing schemas.
Disequilibrium	The confusion and discomfort felt when a new experience cannot be integrated into existing schemas.
Equilibrium	A stable inner feeling of well being that we feel when our thinking enables us to modify or create a new schema that better explains our world.
Hypothesis	Hypothesis is a trial idea, tentative explanation, or theory that can be tested and used to further an investigation.
Observe	To watch with attentive awareness.
Perceiving	To regard and interpret what the senses tell us.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Schema	Schemas are the mental files in which we store our explanations of experiences.
Sensing	To make use of such senses as sight, hearing, and touch.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.

2 Word Precision
Critical reading	Critical reading is analytical and evaluative reading based on accurate neutral comprehension of the material.
Definition	A concise explanation of the meaning of a word that shows us its boundaries.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Term and class	Term refers to the word defined and class refers to the largest family to which the term is related.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.
Word	Word is a sound or group of sounds that communicate meaning. These sounds are also translatable into written symbols.
Word concept	A concept is a abstract idea or principle conveyed in a word.
Word connotation	Word connotation refers to the additional shades of meaning and emotional associations that a word may carry.

3 Facts
Absolute	An absolute is something that is perfect, complete, always true, something never to be doubted or questioned.
Certain	Certain is a characteristic of something fixed, assured, or inevitable.
Fact	A fact is something proven to be true, real, existing or to have existed.
Fiction	Fiction is an idea or story based on imagination rather than reality.
Objective/subjective	Objective is to be impartial, free of bias or prejudice. Subjective is to be swayed by bias or prejudice rather than facts and evidence.
Plausibility	This standard weighs the reasonability of a event or explanation.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Probability	This standard estimates the likelihood that an event occurred or will occur.
Reliability	This is another standard: that the data was confirmed to be fact by a reputable independent source. Reliability also means that the confirmation proved dependable over time.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.
Verifiability	This is a standard for determining facts; that they can be tested and confirmed to be either true and/or in existence or past existence or not.
Verify	To verify is to test and confirm the truth, accuracy, or existence of something.

4 Inference
Description versus Interpretation	Pure description provides factual details that convey an accurate objective depiction of a subject. Interpretation makes inferences and judgments about the subject.
Evidence	Evidence is a sign or proof that something is true or that it has or had existence.
Generalization	A generalization is a statement derived from the study of a number of cases that summarizes something characteristic about these cases.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
Justify	To justify a claim means to defend and support a claim.
Obvious	The obvious is something that is unconcealed and easy to see. Yet we may neglect to pay close attention to the obvious because it is so familiar.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.

5 Assumptions
Accommodation	Accommodation is achieved when we can do the thinking needed to create a new schema or modify an old schema in order to explain a new experience.
Assimilation	Assimilation is achieved when we can integrate new experiences into existing schemas.
Assumption	Assumption is an idea whose truth can be taken for granted.
Assumption Layers	Assumption layers can appear beneath simple assertions. Such layers consist of multiple hidden and unexamined assumptions influenced in turn by one or more value assumptions beneath the whole.
Counter claim	Counter claim is a response to a claim with a defense or with another claim.
Disequilibrium	The confusion and discomfort felt when a new experience cannot be integrated into existing schemas.
Equilibrium	A stable inner feeling of well being that we feel when our thinking enables us to modify or create a new schema that better explains our world.
Hidden Assumption	A hidden assumption is an unclear and unstated idea assumed to be true that is integral to a line of reasoning. In an argument, it is a hidden premise that cannot be examined for truth and validity. Blind acceptance of a hidden premise can lead to the acceptance of a false or invalid conclusion.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
Lateral thinking	Lateral thinking solves problems by reviewing options, overcoming assumptions, and inventing new solutions. Vertical thinking follows more conventional step-by-step logic.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Schema	Schemas are the mental files in which we store our explanations of experiences.
Thesis	A thesis is a short summary statement of an idea that an essay intends to prove. It is also called the thesis statement and controlling idea.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.
Value or Belief Assumption	Value assumption is a belief that we take for granted, one that rarely questioned or even articulated. Remaining hidden and unexpressed, a value assumption can nevertheless shape a chain of reasoning.
Working Assumption	A working assumption is a trial idea, theory, strategy, or hypothesis assumed to be true in order to further an investigation. It is a conscious assumption.

6 Opinions
Advice	Advice is to recommend an opinion to someone else.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
Judgment	Judgment is a final opinion, decision, conclusion or evaluation about something.
Opinion	Opinion is a word used to include an unsupported belief, a supported argument, an expert’s judgment, prevailing public sentiment, and a formal statement by a court.
Personal taste or preference	Personal taste or preferences are forms of opinions that express likes or dislikes. They can be irrational and need not be supported with reasons.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.

7 Evaluations
Evaluate	To determine the value or worth of something.
Evaluations in word connotations	Highly connotative words can be chosen to convey a person’s likes and dislikes under the guise of offering facts.
Expectations	Mental constructs that anticipate the way things will be or should be.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
Opinion	Opinion is a word used to include an unsupported belief, a supported argument, an expert’s judgment, prevailing public sentiment, and a formal statement by a court.
Premature evaluation	To judge something before one has finished examining it.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Propaganda	Propaganda is the manipulation of public opinion for the benefit of the propagator.
Relativism	Relativism is the belief that concepts such as right and wrong are not absolutes but depend on situations and the cultures.
Skilled Evaluations	Skilled evaluations are opinions formed by experts after a careful and impartial study.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.

8 Viewpoints
An unconscious viewpoint	An unconscious viewpoint is a perspective unidentified by the viewer.
Egocentrism	Egocentrism is the assumption that one’s perspective is the only perspective.
Ethnocentrism	Ethnocentrism is the assumption that one’s own social or cultural group is superior to all others.
Exterior	To be exterior to one’s own viewpoint is to have a detached awareness of one’s viewpoint.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
News framing	News framing describes the way relative importance can be implied about a news item by layout design, page placement, photos, and the wording of headlines.
Opinion	Opinion is a word used to include an unsupported belief, a supported argument, an expert’s judgment, prevailing public sentiment, and a formal statement by a court.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Religiocentrism	Religiocentrism is the assumption that one’s own religion is superior to all others.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.
Viewpoint	A viewpoint is a personal or collective perspective consisting of memories, beliefs, and associations from which events are observed and evaluated.

9 Argument
Argument	An argument offers reasons to support a conclusion with the intent to persuade.
Conclusion	A clear statement of what an argument intends to prove or has proven.
Consistency	Consistency refers to standards of logical coherence as well as constancy.
Contradiction	A contradiction refers to a part or parts inconsistent with, or illogical to, other parts.
Debate question	A debate question is a neutrally stated question designed to provide a focus for pro and con positions on an issue.
Discrepancy	A discrepancy, like an incongruity, is something that diverges from an expected standard.
False Information	False information refers to information that can be proven to be untrue.
Implied conclusion	A conclusion understood but not explicitly stated.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
Irreconcilable	Irreconcilable are conflicting ideas, beliefs, or information that cannot coexist, such as contradictions.
Issue	An issue is a matter of dispute.
Missing Information	Missing information refers to essential information purposefully or inadvertently omitted from an argument or report.
Opinion	Opinion is a word used to include an unsupported belief, a supported argument, an expert’s judgment, prevailing public sentiment, and a formal statement by a court.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Reason	A statement offered to explain, justify, or support the conclusion.
Report	A report offers objective accounts of events and objective information.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.
Topic	A topic is a subject that is written or spoken about.

10 Fallacies
Appeal to Bandwagon	This fallacy seeks to persuade by appealing to the wisdom of the momentum of a popular opinion.
Appeal to False Authority	This fallacy seeks to persuade by citing fake, questionable, or inappropriate authority.
Appeal to Fear	This fallacy seeks to persuade by arousing fear that clouds rationality.
Appeal to Pity	This fallacy seeks to persuade by arousing pity.
Circular Reasoning	This fallacy assumes what it is supposed to prove by reasserting the conclusion, sometimes in different words, as though this conclusion needed no supporting reasons.
Fallacy	A fallacy is an invalid, argument that can be deceptive or misleading.
Fallacy of Word Ambiguity	This fallacy seeks to gain an advantage in an argument by using vague undefined words that can be interpreted in more than one way.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
Misleading Euphemisms	This fallacy hides meaning by creating words that make a less acceptable idea seem positive or unrecognizable.
Opinion	Opinion is a word used to include an unsupported belief, a supported argument, an expert’s judgment, prevailing public sentiment, and a formal statement by a court.
Personal Attack	This fallacy attacks a person’s character without addressing the issue.
Pointing to Another Wrong	This fallacy distracts attention from an admitted wrongdoing by claiming that similar actions went unnoticed and unpunished.
Poisoning the Well	This fallacy seeks to prejudice others against a person, group or idea so that their arguments cannot be heard on their own merits.
Prejudicial Language	This fallacy attempts to persuade through the use of loaded words that convey a bias.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Red Herring	This fallacy distracts attention away from the lack of proof for a claim by raising irrelevant issues.
Straw man	This fallacy misrepresents or caricatures an opponent’s position, then refutes the false replica created.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.

11 Inductive Reasoning
Analogical Reasoning	Analogical reasoning draws conclusions on the basis of observed correspondences.
Cause	A perceived source or consequence of an event.
Conclusion of an inductive study	To make a generalization about empirical findings that may or may not confirm the hypothesis tested. It also may not be totally certain.
Either-or Fallacy	This fallacy is an argument that oversimplifies a situation, asserting that there are only two choices when actually there are many.
Extrapolation	This is an inference based on an estimated projection of known information.
False Analogy	This fallacy compares two things that may have some similarities but also significant differences that are ignored for the sake of the argument.
Hasty Generalization	This fallacy is a conclusion based on insufficient evidence.
Hypothesis	Hypothesis is a trial idea, tentative explanation, or theory that can be tested and used to further an investigation.
Inconsistencies and Contradictions	This fallacy makes claims that are contradictory or offers evidence that contradicts the conclusion.
Induction	To reason about all members of a class on the basis of an examination of some members of a class.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
Loaded Question	This fallacy uses a biased question that seeks to obtain a predetermined answer.
Opinion	Opinion is a word used to include an unsupported belief, a supported argument, an expert’s judgment, prevailing public sentiment, and a formal statement by a court.
Pattern	A perceived design or form.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Questionable Statistic	This fallacy backs up an argument with statistics that are either unknowable or unsound.
Reasoning through enumeration	This is reasoning through counting. Reasoning draws conclusions or inferences from facts or premises.
Reasoning through Statistics and Probability	This occurs in inductive reasoning. Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, and interpreting numerical data. Probability in statistics estimates the ratio of the number of actual occurrences of a specific event to the total number of possible occurrences.
Reasoning with hypotheses	To conceive a trial idea and use it to implement an investigation.
Slippery Slope	This fallacy is an unwarranted claim that permitting one event to occur will lead to an inevitable and uncontrollable chain reaction.
The empirical or scientific method	The empirical or scientific method is based on observation and experiment.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.

12 Deductive Reasoning
Deduction	Deduction is to draw an inference about a specific instance from a general principle.
Hidden premise	Hidden premise is a made claim in support of a conclusion that is implied but not stated. When not exposed, it can lead to the acceptance of a false conclusion.
Infer	To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.
Logic	Logic is the science of good reasoning.
Opinion	Opinion is a word used to include an unsupported belief, a supported argument, an expert’s judgment, prevailing public sentiment, and a formal statement by a court.
Principal claim and reasons	These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.
Syllogism	A syllogism is the standardized form that makes the structure of a deductive argument visible. A syllogism consists of two premises or claims followed by a conclusion inferred from these premises.
Thinking	Purposeful mental activity such as reasoning, deciding, judging, believing, supposing, expecting, intending, recalling, remembering, visualizing, imagining, devising, inventing, concentrating, conceiving, considering.
Valid and sound	A valid deductive argument is one in which the conclusion is correctly inferred from the premises. An argument is sound when the conclusion cannot be false because the premises are true and the reasoning is valid.